बिहार के सारण ज़िले में चिरांद स्थल का पुरातात्विक महत्व : एक अध्ययन
सारांश
चिरांद सारण जिले के जिला मुख्यालय छपरा से 6 मील दक्षिण-पूर्व में और सोनपुर-छपरा मार्ग से उतनी ही दूरी पर दक्षिण में स्थित है। एक विशाल टीले वाला यह गांव गंगा के उत्तरी तट पर स्थित है, और गंगा तथा घाघरा का संगम पश्चिम में रिविलगंज के पास कुछ ही दूरी पर है। गंगा इस स्थल से कुछ किलोमीटर दूर सोन नदी से भी मिलती है। स्थल से ढाई किलोमीटर उत्तर में एक सूखी हुई नदी की तलहटी है, जो संभवतः गंडकी नदी का एक घुमाव है। इस प्रकार, इस स्थल पर या इसके निकट चार नदियां मिलती हैं। इसने निश्चित रूप से प्रागैतिहासिक और ऐतिहासिक संस्कृतियों के विकास के लिए इसे बहुत उपजाऊ मिट्टी प्रदान की होगी। इस बात की बहुत अधिक संभावना है कि प्राचीन काल में यह संगम वास्तव में चिरांद में ही था।
Abstract
Chirand is situated 6 miles south-east of Chapra, the district head-quarters of the Saran district and same distance south off the Sonpur-Chapra road. The village with an extensive mound is situated on the northern bank of the Ganga, and the confluence of the Gangă, and the Ghogra is just some distance away in the west near Revalganj. The Gangă also meet the Son few kelometer away from the site. 2 1/2 Km. north of the site there is a dried up bed, posibly, a loop of the Gaņdaki. So four rivers converge on or near the site. This must have provided it a very fertile soil for the development of pre-historic and historical cultures. It is very likely that in ancient times the confluence was actually at Chirand.
1. Introduction and Geographical Setting
Chirand is situated 6 miles south-east of Chapra, the district head-quarters of the Saran district and same distance south off the Sonpur-Chapra Road. The village with
an extensive mound is situated on the northern bank of the Ganga, and the
confluence of the Gangă, and the Ghogra is just some distance away in the west
near Revalganj. The Gangă also meet the son few kelometer away from the site. 2
1/2 Km. north of the site there is a dried-up bed, posibly, a loop of the Gaņdaki. So four rivers converge on or near the site. This must have provided it a very fertile soil for the development of pre-historic and historical cultures. It is very likely that in ancient times the confluence was actually at Chirand. Carllyle in 1879-80 says that it was situated just at the junction of an old river channel (old bed of the Ghogra river) with the Ganges. Themound has been being cut by the Ganga since long, but the face of the moundover looking the river shows jutting bricks of ancient times and potsherds. There is a mosque on the top of the mound, which was erected by Sultan Abul Muzaffar Hussain Shah of Bengal in A.D. 1503. The mosque contains remains of Hindu pilasters, and show parts of an earlier Hindu temple and its materials
were used in the construction of the mosque.1
2. Historical and Religious Significance
The extensive high mound had attracted the attention of scholars. Hoey wrongly
thought it to represent the site of ancient Vaiśālī. Carllyle took it to be site of the Droņa stúpa erected on the remaining ashes of the Buddha, while in Nandlal Day's opinion, the name and the discovery of Buddhist sculptures suggest it to mark the site of the stupa built on one of the two parts in which the Buddha's disciple Ānanda's body was cut by his quarrelling devotees. The Hindu tale connects it with the puranic 'king Mayūradhvaja who readied to cut (chir) the body of his own son towards the fulfilment of his promise to a Brāhamaņa, who was Śiva himself. There is said to exist Chirand-Mahātamya glorifying the religious merits of the place. So Chirand was a site of considerable importance with impressive high mound.
3. Archaeological Exploration and Cultural Sequence
Explorations at the site yielded chalcolithic black-and red ware and N.B.P. sherds, and excavations were started in 1963. In course of excavations in 1970. Neolithic culture overlying the virgin soil was identified. Chirand has given a
continuous cultural sequence beginning from the neolithic to the Pāla period.
4. Neolithic Culture of Chirand
4.1 Significance of the Neolithic Discovery in the Ganga Valley
The discovery of the neolithic culture in 1970 in the Ganga valley was very
significant as till then no neolithic strata was exposed in course of archaeological excavations in northern India, east of Burzhom in Kashmir and west of Assam sites. The discovery led to a sprut of activities and now about a dozen neolithic sites in the Gangă valley have been plotted on the archaeological map of North India. In fact this discovery acted as a catalyst. It is also a matter of no less significance that till then all the Indian neolithic sites so far discovered were located on hill-tops or in foot hills; in Chirand we have for the first time a pure neolithic complex in low lying plains with the monsoon climate.
4.2 Agriculture and Subsistence
The Chirand neolithic community agriculture and evidence for wheat, rice, mung, masur, peas has been found. The agricultural tools must have been of stone,
bone or wood. In the heavily rain-bearing flood-prone region having the monsoon
climate, rice could be more conviniently grown by 'Chhitta' method ie. by
throwing paddy seeds in wet lands, and later harvesting the paddy by stone
sickle-teeth (some microliths could have served the purpose) fixed in a wooden
handle. Though no evidence of plough is available wooden-plough-share could
have been used. Hoe cultivation and use of digging-sticks was more popular and
the moist ground could have been dug shallow and seeds could have been lain in
them. Evidence of winnowing baskets, mullers and grind-stones give us some idea of agricultural operations. No large pottery jars to store the grains have been
found. Grains could have been stored in clay silos dug in the ground in the
room-floor.
4.3 Hunting, Fishing and Animal Domestication
It appears that agriculture was not on a large scale, because hunting tools and bones of animals, fish and mollusces and birds suggest popularity of non-vegetarian
diet. The region appears to have been deeply forested, and the name saran for
the district, was derived from saranya (forested). Wild animals like rhinoceros, elephant, buffaloes, deer of many specis abounded; cattle, buffalo and some varieties of birds were domesticated. Hunting tools like arrowheads of
bone and stone, spearheads, have been found. Clay sling-balls have been
discovered in abundance. It is quite likely that for the growing settled community,
hunting and fishing for food were more commonly practised than agriculture.
Soups of meat and milk and other liquid drinks were popular as we have found a
large number of spouted-vessels, and deep bowls. Dish is conspicuous by its
absence.
4.4 Settlement and Domestic Life
People lived in huts, circular in plan, made of mud and reeds. Some post-holes were noticed. The walls could have been of reed-frame and plastered with mud. Some burnt daubs indicate reed-impressions. Such construction is common in villages in
North Bihar even today. The roof was made of thatch of paddy-poals (straw
bundles)-tied to the reed-frame. Food was cooked in ovens. Clusters of longish
ovens were found for roasting of meat and fish.
4.5 Stone Tools and Microlithic Technology
The tool-kit of Chirand neolithic shows an amazing variety. Both stone and bone-tools were found, though the latter were more in abundance and variety. Polished and ground celts were met with, though no stone vessel has been found. Hammers,
mullers, pestles, querns and balls have been picked up. Besides the ground and
pecked-tools we found quite a number of microliths, which as in neolithic sites
of South India, constituted an integral part of the neolithic Chirand.2 Parallel-sided blades, scrapers, arrow-heads, points, lunates, borers and some geometric microliths are principal microlith objects.
4.6 Bone-Tool Manufacturing Technology
Objects made of bone, particularly of antlers, indicated an advanced bone-technology. Tools, ornaments like pendant, weapons have been found in considerable quantity and of good finis. L. A. Narain has dealt on the methodology of bone-tool making by the Chirand neolithic people.3 Different parts of the animal bonewere dismembered carefully and marrow was extracted. Remaining marrow in the crevices was removed by boiling the bone-piece in water with soda and calcium
compound easily found at the locality from saltpetre and lime, derived by
burning the shells of the snails and mollusces found in plenty at the site.
When the bone was warm and soft it was carefully cut along a straight line
drawn on the bone by a stone blade with repeated pressure. For round-cutting
carefully positioned groove was made round the antler bone and to and fro
movement of the gut or hair-thread in repeated motions led to the detachment of
the desired piece from the bone object, antler bone. The round cutting of the
cannon-bone was done by stone blades only. The desired detached piece was
dressed with stone blade to make a rough-out of the intended tool and it was
smoothened by sandstone pieces. Eyes or holes in the tools were made with
bone-drills of various sizes. Certain objects like pendant, bangle etc. were
deliberately polished. The tools then were subjected to fire to give them
strength.
4.7 Bone and Antler Tools: Types and Uses
One such clay embalmed artifact was discovered from the excavations. Bones of particular kinds of animals and particular parts of animals were chosen for the different varieties of bone tools manufactured. Because of its toughness and more compact texture, antler was chosen for the manufacture of heavy duty-tools like wedge, chisel, barcelt, hammer. tong and puncturing tools. The bar-celt made of upright shaft of the doe deer was bifacially rubbed to get convex cutting edge, and was hafted in one bruised-end of a bamboo and securely tied with a creeper. This was a multipurpose tool used for cutting branches of trees, digging
post-holes and cutting thick bony-joints of animals. The slender beam of the
red deer served the purpose of weeding tools. The upright pointed tine of the
red deer was probably used as a puncturing tool. The sophisticated tools and weapons were made out of metacorpal and metattssal canon-bones of the cattle and deer. Of the lower portion of the tortoise shell knife or skin cutting
tools were made. Artifical rubbing gave them sharp edge. The socketed comb was
designed for removing hair from the animal skin. Leather was cut with the sharp-edged tool, operated with the pressure of the palm as today. The working end of the leather sewing needle was purposely made flat as such an end easily pierces in leather than the needle with round-end. The spearheads were mounted in the bruised end of the bamboo, with their working points fire-hardened. Bound collectively in a group of four or five separately with one another angularly,could be used as harpoon for fishing. No harpoon has been found.
4.8 Bone-Tool Industry, Crafts and Ornaments
Till 1972 as many as 150 bone tools and artefacts were found. We get a highly sophisticated bone-tool industry which comprised pick-axes, burnisher, chisel. hammer, digger, weeder, bar-celt, parallel-sided blades, shaft-straightener, side scraper, end scraper, needle, bodkin, disc, tooth-pick, awl, drill, daggers, spearhead and arrowhead. On the basis of the nature of tools, one can visualise
some form of textile and leather-industry and net-weaving by bodkin. Bone
combs, pendants, dividers and a circular disc with holes on opposite side,
probably used for accurate surveying are notable finds indicating developed
technology. For ornaments tortoise shell-bangles, ivory bangles, combs, ear-rings and beads of agate, jasper, steatite and faience, beads of various shapes of chaleadony, such as barrel, cylendrical, triangular, disc-shaped were found, and could indicate use of necklace, bracelets etc. These beads have minute holes which must have been made very carefully with fine drills. Pendants and bangles of bone were found; a miniature axe-shaped pendant is unique. Antimony rods could have been used for cosmetic.
4.9 Neolithic Pottery Tradition
Neolithic pottery in Chirand is equally distinctive. Among the wares we may refer to black-and-red ware, red-ware, grey-ware and black ware, though red ware is
found in bulk. Black-and-red ware is generally associated with later chalcolithic culture, and its discovery in Chirand in neolithic complex was bound to raise eyebrows. But finds clearly show that while the inverted-firing technique was known, the pottery forms in the neolithic strata were distinct from the chalcolithic black-and-red ware forms. Most of the pots were hand-made but some were fashioned on a turn-table and with dabber-and-anvil technique. Both grey and red wares were found at Piklihal in south; while grey ware is not found in Burzahom where black ware is abundant with red ware. Black-and-red ware appears also to be present at Brahmagiri where it has been described by Wheeler as brown and black4 and also at Piklihal where it is discribed as 'approaching black-and-red ware' Allchin,5 who also found it at Utnoor as the 'ware with red and black surface'. Both at Chirand and Piklihal there is evidence of micaceous pottery and also of paring-technique whereby extra clay was scarped off the interior walls of a vessel when it was leather-hard. Fish-bones may have been used for this art in Chirand.
4.10 Pottery Decoration and Manufacturing Techniques
Pottery was decorated in many ways. We have both applique, incised and punctured designs. A lid decorated with punctured design was noticed at Tekkalkota in neolithic strata.6 Knobbed vessels have been found here; one has seven holes
like one reported from Piklihal. pots with holes on shoulders were probably
suspended-jars hanging from the roof. Burnished ware is common here as well as
at other neolithic sites.
4.11 Ochre Painting and Distinctive Pottery Forms
One of the distinguishing features of Chirand neolithic pottery first noticed at Chirand was post-firing painting in ochre colour mainly on grey ware, but sometimes on red-ware also. Though some stray examples of such post-firing ochre painting appear on rims or spouts of some pots at Piklihal, Utnoor. Brahmagiri IA, and Sangankallu, at Chirand we have it in much larger number and in diverse
designs. An ochre piece was also found at Chirand, the material of which the
painting was made. Some pots with rusticated base may have served as cooking vessels. The pottery forms which are found at Chirand are vases with or without spouts, miniature vases, vases with pointed bases, händi with blunt carination on the shoulder, deep bowls, perforated bowls, lip-bowls, bowls on stands, footed-bowls, oval shaped bowls with broad lips and hemispherical bowls. Of this the handī with blunt carination in shoulder is a unique water vessel from Chirand which has no parallel from other neolithic sites. Another notable and unparalleled find is a burnished red-ware oval vessel with a broad lip, probably used for libation in a ritual. The bowl-on-stand is interesting though the stand is missing. Bowls on three or four legged stand have been reported from Piklihal. At Chirand we have a bowl on a short four-legged-stand. It is noteworthy that no platter or dish has been found at Chirand though from Piklihal it has been reported.
4.12 Terracotta Figurines and Religious Indicators
We should now refer to the terraocttas found from Neolithic Chirand. Terracottta
figurines of a bull, snake, birds have been found. One punctured-decorated object is shaped like a miniature linga. Whether bull, snake or birds had religious significance we cannot tell, but vessels with perforation and an oval-shaped broad lipped (libation?) vessel may suggest ritualistic significance. Bull and snake later, were worshipped in this part of the country, and pouring oil and/or water on a sacred symbol is a persistent popular ritual. The history of religion and religious ideas may be taken back to the neolithic times.
4.13 Chronology of the Neolithic Culture
Now about the chronology of the Neolithic Chirand. CRD XI section shows that from
layer 18 overlying on the natural soil to layer 11 is the thickness of the neolithic
deposit, which is more than 3 m. It must have taken centuries to accumulate
this mass of stratified deposit. One of the uncaliberated 14c date from the top
neolithic strata is 1845n-+110. The latest 14c date for neolithic is 1050-+110.
One of the date is 1755+155 B. C. If we take into account the thickness of the
stratified deposit and uncaliberated 14c dates, it would be reasonable to put
the beginning of the neolithic earlier than 2500 B. C., may be cir. 3000В. С.
4.14 Characteristics and Cultural Transition
Looking at the cultural assemblage of the Chirand Neolothic as a whole, what emerges is that it has its own individual characteristics, and the succeeding chalcolithic culture appears to evolve from it.
5. Chalcolithic Culture Chalcolithic
5.1 Chalcolithic Phases and Settlement Pattern
A luxuriant chalcolithic culture with the distincti black-and-red ware was discovered in Chirand. The cultural period has two phase, A and B. 'A' phase is without iron but with evidence of copper, 'B' phase has iron in upper strata but without N.
B. P. It is safe to conclude that iron appeares to have come into use before
the N. B. P. ware was invented. Except for this significant difference, thecultural traits in phase A and phase B are almost indentical. The total chalcolithic deposit is 5.50m. thkck. "Like their predecessors thechalcolithic community lived in houses made of reeds and bamboos with mudplaster, their dwellings being comparatively larger in dimension (than of the neolithic predecessors) having floors of burnt earth. The earliest level ofthis pd. has revealed a circular hearth and a few post-holes. A post-cremationburial has been suspected on the level of the pd." 7
5.2 Chalcolithic Pottery and Decorative Traditions
The fabric of early black-and-red ware of Chirand chalcolithic is from coarse to medium variety - finer variety appears in the next period with the N.B.P.8
long necked jar, vase, bowl, dish and basin, some lipped, are the principal forms in this ware. Dish is a very common type both in black-and-red and black ware. Vases having horizontally splayed out rim are few, and long-necked jars with broadmouth and concave neck occur in plenty. Dish-on-stand, both tall and
short, and short with wide dish even with corrugated stem have been found in
good number. The next in popularity is balck ware, which is slipped on both
sides. The fabric is coarse and forms are limited to bowl and dish. Dish-on-stand in black ware also is met with. Besides black-slipped ware, red ware though not in much frequency was also in use and principal vessels manufactured in this ware were bowls, basins, vases and troughs. Among other pottery forms, jug, long-necked jar, spouts, footed bowls, dish-on-stand with corrugated stem, lipped-basin and three-footed perforated vessel may be particularly noted. Some pots in cream-slipped ware and steel grey have been found including lotā likepots. Some pottery was decorated. There is evidence of painting in white inlinear strokes on the inner side of the dish as in Ahar on black-and-red ware. Cream pigment is also used on many vessels. The splayed base of the stand of the dish has painting in cream dots. The cream is applied on the red surface and white on black surface. There are a number of painted designs including groups of dashes, wavy lines, straight lines and solid dots of different sizes.
Paintings in the associated black-slipped ware comprise dashes and strokes. A solitary exaple of a bowl in steel grey ware has stroke-paintings on the rim. Besides
paintings, decoration in applique was also resorted to frequently. Rope designs, thumb pressed, oblique strokes and criss-cross designs also appear on some vessels.
5.3 Cultural Affinities with Ahar and Other Sites
The chalcolithic black-and-red ware, and with white paintings is almost
indistingushable from Ahai specimens of Rajasthan. Lipped bowl found in Chirand
are similar to those found in other neolithic sites and this vessel later
evolved into the chalcolithe channel spout. At Paimpalli, the burnished grey were, as found in Chirand, is available. According to S.R. Rao, this type of lipped bowl and burnished grey ware shows affinity or contact with Paimpalli, and Chirand will be extremely important for the development of Neolithic into Chalcolithic.9 This statement actually proved prophetic as later neolithic was exposed in Chirand.
5.4 Harappan Connections in Chirand Ceramics
It is really intriguing that certain Harappan traits are met with in Neolithic-Chalcolithic ceramics in Chirand. The black-and-red ware is met in early Harappan levels in Lothal. So the micaceous red ware was found at both sides. Dish-on-stand is oneof the diagnostic type for the Harappan culture, and in Chirand Chalcolithic wehave almost all types of dish-on-stand in black, black-and red, and red ware inboth stout, stumpy and longstemmed forms. It is true that from ChalcolithicĀhar and Navada Toli also very poor fragments distantly indicating adish-on-stand have been noticed. Dish-on-stand has been reported from Alamgirpur in Harappan context, and dish-on-stand like fragments have been unearthed at Bara, Ambakheri in western U.P. But there is no doubt that the forms, quality and some with painted dots, of dish-on-stand found in Chirand, Chalcolithic stand apart, and speak out its affinity in quality and type with Harappan examples. How can we explain this engima? Small to medium-sized goblets are another characteristic Harappan pot and it is interesting to note that button-based goblet has been found in Chirand in chalcolithic context.Jar-covers with knobs in red ware of Chirand are similar to the Harappan examples. Knobbed pottery is quite familiar in the Harappan culture. No such pottery hasbeen found in any part of north India but a few pieces of knobbed pottery both red and grey were have been found in neolithic strata in Chirand. Similarly the variety, number and quality of stone-beads discovered in Chirand neolithic are comparable to Harappan prototypes and are not met with in other neolithic sites in India in that quantity and quality. Could we take these finds as result of 'Harappan fall out in the Mid-Gangetic Valley'?10 Speaking about the
chalcolithic pottery of Chirand, S.R. Rao observes, "Chirand is very important indeed as its pottery shows three distinct elements - Neolithic, Lothal-Harappan and Aharian."11 R.C. Agarwal also noted that Chirand has borrowed some Harappan elements.12 Speaking about the Chirand 'dish-on-stand', Krishnadeva observed, "So far I have examined, it is extremely a derivative type from mature Harappan culture".
5.5 Harappan Cultural Interaction and Its Interpretation
There appears to be thus a consensus that some characterestic Harappan types and
cultural traits occur in both neolithic and succeeding chalcolithic cultures in
Chirand. Chrologically it is quite feasible as Chirand neolithic was contemporary with the Harappan and the chalcolithic Period IA was not very far from the end of the Harappan culture, when Harappan artists were on migration with the end of the city-civilisations. But the space dividing Chirand and Harappan sites is enormous, and Harappan traits are not as distinct or as numerous as met with in excavations in the Western U. P. and Eastern U. P. asin Chirand. So the explanation for this phenomenon eludes us at present, and if Chirand neolithic and chalcolithic borrowed some Harappan traints, why notother outstading Harappan features?
5.6 Settlement, Technology and Material Culture
This is further borne out by the fact that except for rich pottery, the chalcolithic
Chirand is poor in other civilisation-marks. The settlement pattern is
primitive, showing development from neolithic. But while in the preceding
neolithic we have rich haul of stone-beeds of fine quality and variety, chalcolithic Chirand which has some Harappan like pottery types, is very very poor in this artistic activity. Even copper appears to have been sparingly used. Iron slags appear on the top layers and also a number of socketed-hoes on the first three top layers or black-and red ware.
5.7 Other Chalcolithic Finds and Chronology
Among interesting finds from the chalcolithic strata, mention may be made of a miniature sarcophagus in cream-slipped ware. The piece is slightly damaged. It bears painting in dots in cream pigment, showing the outline of a bull and a deer. Terracottas are very poor and few. Terracotta beads, mostly pear and ghata shaped are found. A headless flattish bird with punctured decoration all
over the body is all that we have for a terracotta figurine from chalcolithic
Chirand. Bone and stone arrow-heads, points and other microlithic tools like
blades have been found, including socketed bone arrow-heads, a few neolithic celts, styli of bone and ivory-pins, stone beads of steatite and chalcedony,
saddle querns, balls, and pestles. Exposed animal burials have been noticed in
the upper layers of Period IIB with iron. The earliest C14 date for the Chalcolithic
Chirand is 1600 B.C., which is just in line with dates of chalcolithic Āhar and
Navada Toli.
6. N.B.P.W. and Iron Culture Period- III
starts with the emergence of the N.B.P. The total thickness of the deposit is 2.45 representing N.B.P.W culture. N.B.P. sherds of fine quality and in different shapes and shades appear. Some have paintings. Associated wares are black-and-red, grey, black and red. Some painted black-and-red and red ware in white or cream colour ware found. Iron implements are represented by sickles, axes, ploughshares, daggers, lances, knife-blades etc. Terracotta figurines of human and serpent are found. Toy-carts in terracotta have been met with. One of the rare find in mid N.B.P.W. level, assigned to the Mauryan period, is a terracotta mask, (length 35 cm, breadth 32.5 cm), of a human figure on both faces of the mask, a female and male on either face. It must have been used at a pantomime.13 The double-face is difficult to explain. On the upper levels of the period there are remains of brick structures though evidence of mud walls also is there.14
7. Historical and Buddhist Architecture
Period IV is represented by 100 B.C. to 300 A.D. Structural remains of well-burnt-bricks of both monastic and secular character have been exposed. The Buddhist monastery was built in blocks; each block containing three cells with a verandah in front of the residential structures; one of the blocks shows two small interconnecting rooms with a drain passing through a circular hole, and a raised floor to keep water vessel
have been found. These may represent a bath-room and lavatory. The drain
emptied into a square cistern outside the main building. A shrine-like square
chamber of thick and massive wall has been exposed. A kitchen about 100 steps
to the west of the monastic establishment has been unearthed. It is constructed
of a mudwall and has a rammed surkhi floor with the evidence of an oven with
charcoal in it in a corner. A torso of Hariti has been found in this kitchen
area. The bricks measure 41×25×6 cm. These structural remains show 5 building
stages.
8. References
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